IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.nme.com/news/watch-new-trailer-christopher-nolans-dunkirk-2067364 So I’m sure most of you have seen Christopher Nolan's cinematic masterpiece by now—if you haven't yet, you should, and if you have—there’s a possibility you’re wondering what happened. The movie only covers a very short time frame (really the course of just one day) so if you’re not a history major, you’re probably wondering how Dunkirk even happened. “Didn’t we win the war?” Some of you are asking. Well, if Dunkirk was the only film you ever saw about WW2 you’d actually probably think we got smashed. Thankfully this was not the case, however Dunkirk does cover a very important moment in history—That is, in 1940, when the evacuation of Dunkirk happened—it really didn’t look like we were going to win the war at all. Hitler had already moved his forces into Austria, invaded Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark, Norway—and by the time Britain started loading troops off the French shoreline—Hitler’s armies had taken the Netherlands, Belgium, and overrun France. The German invasion of Belgium and France in May 1940 proved an embarrassing blow for the Allies at the outset of the war, and though Dunkirk was painted as a sort of victory by the British government (to be fair saving your entire army from being decimated/imprisoned is worthy of celebration), it was at its core a frantic retreat from one of the worst defeats in European history. With a single sweeping manoeuvre, Hitler had managed to completely disembowel the French military and send the British bobbing back across the Channel for the white Cliffs of Dover. The subsequent German annexation of France shocked the world, and Britain, as a result, would be one of the very few European nations left physically untouched by the expansion of the Nazi regime. So thank God there was a sea between Britain and Continental Europe. Although that same sea that has historically provided Britain with a giant moat would suddenly prove itself to be a massive barrier to the British forces. The question is though: how did the British end up stranded at Dunkirk anyway? What sort of monstrous miscalculation could have left hundreds of thousands of Allied troops backed into the English Channel and stranded in such a tiny area? Allow me to explain. So, background and context: The German invasion of France in May of 1940 fundamentally shaped the future of the Second World War. Its success led to the annexation of all of France, which gave the Germans a massive natural defence in France’s western coastline and an excellent place to forward naval operations from as well. If you know your WW2 history—you would know they would hold this coast soundly until 1944. Moreover, the successful defeat of the British & French allowed Hitler to consolidate the western European continent and focus on the east. That’s another story. In essence, the reason the evacuation of Dunkirk had to happen is because the Allies were forced into a place they didn’t want to be, and this was all because for starters—they were not in the right place at the right time. Let’s break it down. So once the Allies realised Germany was coming for Belgium and France, preparation for the German advance resulted in most of the French regular divisions being concentrated in the northern part of Belgium, alongside the British Expeditionary Force and the RAF. What the British and French didn’t know however, was that while most of their troops were stationed up north, Germany would be focusing the brunt of its attack on the southern part of Belgium, near the River Meuse. Long story short—the Germans encircled the Allies, resulting in masses of casualties and imprisonment, which in turn left France with a dismal defence force and the British making a run for it. Now in theory, the repulsion of German forces from Belgium and France might have been easy. (Perhaps the Allies should have known not to concentrate their forces so far north of the French border.) However, they did not expect Hitler to send his armies trekking through the thickly wooded and mountainous region of the Ardennes forest (for two reasons).
A very similar tactic to that of the Schlieffen Plan then was originally intended for the 1940 German invasion of Belgium and France. Luckily for the Allies, they were expecting just this sort of plan from Germany. So they were totally ready to crush the German forces as soon as they crossed into northern Belgium. The Allied plan was to counteract this northern invasion with the majority of their forces (and eventually punch into Germany and secure peace terms), so the French stationed their best army divisions up there along with the BEF, and just for good measure, the British also had planes stationed up there for air cover. So recap: originally the Germans were planning to stick to the Schlieffen plan. SPOILER: they didn’t. Germany had two Army Groups which were to engage the Allies in Belgium, Group A and Group B. Group B was to be concentrated in the northern part of Belgium, whilst Group A (a much smaller force), would be focused in the south near the River Meuse. Army Group B was initially intended to carry the biggest blow of German effort and would also be a highly mobile army Group, complete with multiple Panzer divisions. It would be tasked with sweeping into Belgium from the east and cutting south toward France—in a fashion almost identical to the Schlieffen Plan. Fortunately for the Allies, such an attack could be countered, as they were well prepared for such an assault in the north. However, General Brundstedt, commander of German Army Group A, and his chief of staff General Manstein had devised a new plan, unbeknownst to the Allies. Manstein’s new strategy suggested concentrating the main thrust of Hitler’s forces in the south, where the majority of German troops and tanks could cross the Meuse and sweep west across lower Belgium. This would cut off the Allied supply lines and prevent them from bringing in reinforcements. In the meantime, Army Group B would basically act like a matador’s cloak for the Allies in the north, convincing Britain and France that the German assault which they had anticipated was indeed arriving right where they expected it. The plan would come to be known as the sichelschnitt or ‘Sickle Cut' movement. The Sickle Cut was somewhat of a risky plan, as it meant manoeuvring thousands of vehicles and personnel over the mountainous and thickly wooded terrain of the Ardennes. This route would not only significantly slow the German advance, but it would also leave them utterly exposed to aerial bombardment if they were detected. As a result, Manstein’s Plan actually faced a great deal of backlash in Germany among Hitler’s generals…however, the Führer was convinced of the strategy’s feasibility and it was subsequently implemented. The Sickle Cut was really bad news for Britain and France. Unfortunately, the Allies had no way of knowing that the Germans had changed tack and now planned on concentrating the brunt of their assault where they the least amount of their troops stationed. In the days and weeks leading up to the battle, Allied intelligence had not been able to successfully decode German communications. Meanwhile, to the detriment of the Allies, their own signals were being decoded and exploited by the Germans. The British and French then were completely unaware of the fact that Runstedt’s army Group A (now the more powerful German force), would concentrate its’ assault far to the south of their position, and eventually encircle them, culminating in utter disaster. Technically, the Allies should have still been able to defend against Army Group A heading through the Ardennes, however the only units stationed near the River Meuse were reserve units—and true story here—some of them became so afraid when the Germans showed up unexpectedly that they thought German tanks had already crossed the River (when in fact, they hadn’t) and they fled their posts. What about the exposure from an attack from the air though? While it’s true that the Germans were utterly exposed as they trucked along through the Ardennes Forest—remember that the RAF planes were up north, with the bulk of the Allied force. And France’s air power was focussed mostly in the south of France (they were concerned about an Italian offensive). To top all of this unpreparedness off—the few reports that came through to the Allied High Command that the Germans were actually coming through the Ardennes in force weren’t taken seriously. The forest was deemed “impenetrable”, so instead of shoring up their defences by the Meuse—the Allies relied on hills, rocks, and trees to stop the Nazis. So. To sum up and make a long story really short, the German’s shifted from the Schlieffen Plan 2.0 to the Manstein “Sickle Cut” Plan and came through the Ardennes. This left the Allies completely trapped by two German army groups. The German panzer divisions were quick and the Allies were basically encircled before they knew what hit them. The area they could continue to occupy what with all of the incoming Germans eventually got smaller and smaller…and smaller—until Dunkirk became the last holdout, and the only place where the British might have a hope of retreating. So that’s how we ended up at Dunkirk—with hundreds of little ships captained by Navy officers and civilians darting across the English Channel to the rescue of Britain’s (and a few of France’s) fighting men. This is cool:IMAGE SOURCE: Kimberly Anderson, http://slideplayer.com/slide/9718280/ Additional Reading:"The War in the West, 1939-1940" by Karl Heinz-Frieser. Trans. Harvey L. Mendelsohn from The Cambridge History of the Second World War
To Lose a Battle: France 1940 by Alistair Horne The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 by Julian Jackson The Battle of France, 1940 by Philip Warner The Second World War by John Keegan
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Image: Myrabella. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bayeux-Tapestry) In light of recent news that the Bayeux Tapestry will be taking a tour around the UK in the near future, I thought it would be worth looking at the year 1066, and more specifically the Battle of Hastings. There are a host of reasons why we should all pay our respects to this epic battle in history and the events which followed. Even if you aren't English (or Norman), if you live in any of the world's English-speaking countries today, the Battle of Hastings had huge repercussions for our ancestors. William's conquest of England would drastically influence how England, and the English people, would develop as a nation. Some would even argue that without the Norman Conquest, England would not have evolved into an imperial power. So for those who may be unfamiliar with 1066, what was the Norman Conquest? What did the Battle of Hastings have to do with it? Well, in AD 1066, Harold Godwinson sat on the throne of England, but in the coming months he would be forced to contest his throne with both King Harald Hardrada of Norway and William, Duke of Normandy. Two foreigners pining for the English crown would mean Harold would have to defend his right to rule--first at the Battle of Stamford Bridge (where he would do battle with King Harald of Norway and his own brother Tostig Godwinson), and finally at the Battle of Hastings. The Battle of Hastings was precipitated by King Edward the Confessor’s death. King Edward had reigned in England for twenty-four years when he died on 5 January, 1066. Harold, Earl of Wessex was proclaimed king the same day and was crowned at Westminster Abbey the day after Edward’s death. It was apparent that Edward on his death-bed had nominated Harold as his successor and to the council of magnates too, Harold seemed an astute choice to replace Edward as the English monarch—he was in fact so powerful, that he was even referred to as an “under-king” during Edward’s reign. The trouble with Harold’s succession however was that more than one powerful noble felt entitled to the English throne. As a child Edward the Confessor had spent time in Normandy, and his connections with the place put him on friendly terms with William. This was especially the case after King Harold’s father, the Earl Godwin revolted against Edward in 1051. Edward expelled the family from the kingdom and subsequently proclaimed William his heir. However, the Godwin family regained their status in England the following year through force, and as such, Edward’s Norman allies were ousted from England (including the Norman archbishop of Canterbury, who was replaced by the Saxon bishop Stigand). After his father’s death, Harold became Earl of Wessex and increasingly powerful, but his family's precarious position with the monarch meant he was not guaranteed the throne. In 1064 Edward sent Harold to Normandy on his behalf. Unfortunately for Harold though, his ship fell off course, and he was captured and detained by a local count along the French coast. It was William of Normandy who requested that Harold be released, and it is accounted that afterwards Harold Godwinson swore to support William’s succession to the English throne. (It is unknown under which circumstances such an oath was taken, only that it is testified of in two accounts). In spite of this, two years later, when King Edward died, Harold readily accepted the English crown. Understandably, William was not pleased with this news, and upon being convinced that a takeover of England might be possible, the Duke of Normandy began planning his invasion of the Anglo-Saxon island. William even sent representatives to Pope Alexander II, who backed William's claim to the English crown in hopes that he could bring the autonomous English church back in line with Rome. It was not long before an incursive force was amassed at the mouth of the River Dives in France and the Duke was ready to make his move. Meanwhile, King Harold II was occupied in the north of England with King Harald Hardrada of Norway. Invited by Harold's brother Tostig, Hardrada attempted to claim England for himself, but was bested by Harold Godwinson at the famous Battle of Stamford Bridge, in which both Harold's brother and the Norwegian king were slain. It is important to note here that the Battle of Stamford Bridge took place on 25 September 1066, and the Battle of Hastings happened on 14 October; only 19 days apart from each other, two of the most important battles in English history took place. It was just six days following Harold Godwinson's impressive victory at Stamford Bridge that the king received word from a messenger that William, Duke of Normandy had arrived in force at Pevensey on England's southern coast. King Harold now had to take his tired army all the way from Yorkshire to Sussex (a distance of over 200 miles) in record time to hang on to his crown. Harold did not take his entire army from Stamford Bridge, and would gather more forces in London before marching onto Hastings, however a significant number of warriors who fought at Stamford did accompany him to Hastings, and these men would have been fatigued beyond comprehension after a lightning march from London to Yorkshire, followed by a bloody battle, and finally a gruelling journey back. When Harold went to war for the second time, he arrived with an army that was tired, but also incomplete. It is widely believed that had Harold waited even two weeks more in London for men to assemble to him, he could have met William with a much larger force. In addition, the Normans made deadly use of their skilled archers and cavalry, for which Harold's traditional Anglo-Saxon tactics were no match. Harold arrived at Hastings with very few archers and no cavalry, leaving his warriors outmatched. The Anglo-Saxon shield wall was a formidable barrier of defence, but when the Norman horses charged, and the shield wall disintegrated, it became obvious to the Anglo-Saxons that the battle had been lost. King Harold himself suffered an arrow to the eye before being cut down, and the Normans were victorious. William the Conqueror, as he became known had successfully invaded England and slain her king. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066, and his descendants sit on the English throne to this day. The Norman conquest would mark the end of Anglo-Saxon England. William would oust the English ruling elite and replace them with Norman barons, and French became the dominant language of the English court. William was also responsible for the construction of castles all across the country, whereby he would secure his reign, and for the completion of the Domesday Book, or the "Great Survey" of England and Wales, the like of which would not be attempted again until 1873. Want to know more?English Heritage and Ten Minute History both have great videos on 1066:
Some sources for additional reading:Richard Holmes, Britain at War: Famous British Battles from Hastings to Normandy
Jim Bradbury, The Battle of Hastings S.W. Crompton, Battles That Changed The World: Hastings Medieval Warfare Magazine Domesday Book |
AuthorMy name is Danny Randell. I am an undergraduate student of history, and have also been privileged to work in various capacities at two provincially recognised museums in Alberta, Canada. ArchivesCategories |